The Brushless Direct Current Motor (BLDCM) is in nature of high power density, high reliability and easy control etc, growing with the development of microcomputers, new power electronic devices, control theories and low cost rare earth permanent magnet material. Chemical Name: Sintered Neodymium Iron Boron (NdFeB) Permanent Magnet Material or Component Weight % CAS No. Ein Dauermagnet (auch Permanentmagnet) ist ein Magnet aus einem Stück hartmagnetischen Materials, zum Beispiel Legierungen aus Eisen, Cobalt, Nickel oder bestimmten Ferriten. The extra gears reduce the motor speed by a factor of one to three or four and transmit it to the pinion gear. A permanent magnet is called a permanent magnet because its magnetism is 'always on', it generates its own persistent magnetic field unlike an electromagnet which is made from a coil of wire wrapped around a ferrous core and requires an electric current to generate a magnetic field. Sintered AlNiCo permanent magnet material properties Anisotropic and isotropic material grades 1st April 2014 / Issue 1 ©2014, S G Technologies Limited However what makes a magnet permanent? A magnet whose magnetic field originates from permanently ferromagnetic materials (permanent magnet s) to generate a magnetic field between the two poles of the magnet.There is no requirement for additional electrical power or cooling, and the iron-core structure of the magnet leads to a limited fringe field and no missile effect. The process and the heat treatment needed to optimize magnetic properties produces hard (Rc45) and brittle parts that are best shaped or finished by abrasive grinding. This paper presents an investigation on how the remanence and recoil permeability of a PM material affect its usefulness in a low speed, multi-pole . And the strongest magnetic field of a permanent magnet is about 8,000 gauss. Phones are open 24/7. 1,2 Basically the same material had first caused excitement as a potential new permanent magnet about twenty years ago. Im Buch gefunden – Seite 49Selectivity of the Data : The data were developed as typical design information using US Steel material rather ... and Search : The handbook is divided into sections with general information on each type of permanent magnet material ... One way is to treat the entire magnet as a ferromagnetic material, where the two end sections are defined as being pre-magnetized in different and opposite directions. Useful permanent magnet materials are formed by processing molten alloys of cerium, iron, and boron to form permanent magnet compositions with appreciable coercivity and remanence. When the external field is removed it no longer exhibits a magnetic field. However what makes a magnet permanent? Im Buch gefunden – Seite 11Additional investigations should be made concerning the best construction for the pilot element with regard to physical dimensions , airgap length , type of core material , type of permanent magnet material , etc. By Dr. John OrmerodTechnical Adviser / Magnet Applications IntroductionIt's interesting to note that no major new permanent magnet material has been introduced since NdFeB in the 1980's; in fact, it's now 35 years ago since the announcement of NdFeB magnets at the 29th MMM conference held in Pittsburgh, PA in November 1983; a long time […] In addition, we provide a complete range of permanent magnet types including sintered neodymium magnets and magnetic assemblies. Manufactured in DuBois, Pennsylvania, Bunting is the only North American manufacturer of compression bonded, injection molded and hybrid magnets. How to Select the Appropriate Permanent Magnet Material There are at least four questions the engineer needs to answer when working on a new magnetic design. Electronic structure and properties of a permanent-magnet material: NdFe 11 TiN x S. S. Jaswal Phys. Samarium : Cobalt (1:5) Sintered . We break it down to build it back up. Im Buch gefunden – Seite 26918017257 The determination of magnetostatic fields in permanentmagnet motors is investigated . ... The two cavities are submerged in liquid helium in order to maintain the superconducting material at a temperature of approximately 4 ... Conceptual Questions(10) Figure shows four permanent magnets, each having a hole through its center. Bonded A DC Motor whose poles are made of Permanent Magnets is known as Permanent Magnet DC (PMDC) Motor. Maintaining simple geometries and wide tolerances is therefore desirable from an . Sign up to receive Dexter Magnetics news, promotions, and more. These cookies will be stored in your browser only with your consent. Unlike electromagnets, permanent magnets produce a persistent magnetic field without the need for any external source of magnetism or electrical power. The Relationship between Motor Performance and Permanent Magnet Material Function. They are the most widely used magnets today. These magnets are usually lower in magnetic strength as there are limitations to the degree of loading. Alnico magnets are produced by two typical methods, casting or sintering. The alloying process is casting or sintering. 1993 Sep 1;48(9):6156-6158. doi: 10.1103/physrevb.48.6156. Last modified on 19 March 2020. Our exclusive NeoBlend™ neodymium magnets . Im Buch gefundenThe resistance per phase winding is computed from the number of turns Tph, material specific resistivity ρ, average length of a conductor lc that is half of a winding turn, and area of cross section of the coil ac, by computing the ... NdFeB . This Permanent Magnet Material market report further proceeds with making key players more aware about significant variables such as socio-economic changes, potential manufactures, shifting . Im Buch gefunden – Seite 31Typical demagnetization and energy - product curves for permanentmagnet materials . ... Typical curves for the three classes of permanent - magnet material ar shown in figure 16 . The choice of material for a given application depends ... Properties on Generator Rotor Design. Sintered . Im Buch gefunden – Seite 1191a groove in said cylindrical housing extending into an end thereof and concentric to said hollow central part , permanent magnet material in said groove with one end of said permanent magnet material adjacent said magnetic material at ... Magnetism is an . China is the world's largest both producer and exporter of rare . Im Buch gefunden – Seite 4-141Looking at the changes in the price of materials in the last decade, it is clear that rare earth magnet costs have dropped ... A comparison between pre-1999 and 2009 material costs of a permanent magnet motor is given in Table 7.8 [23]. Samarium cobalt is a type of rare earth magnet material that is highly resistant to oxidation, has a higher magnetic strength and temperature resistance than Alnico or Ceramic material. These are anisotropic grades and provide for a preferred direction of magnetic orientation. 3) GEAR REDUCTION. In order to understand this we need to know how magnets work. You also have the option to opt-out of these cookies. 2.1.3 Bulk Magnet Material:The term bulk . Alnico . The most commonly used magnets are superconducting electromagnets. Cost is also driven by existing intellectual property rights of the developers of this type of magnet. The molding process allows for the manufacture of more complex shapes. Im Buch gefunden – Seite 280For this reason, it is required that a permanent magnet material intended for the automotive application enables the resulting permanent magnet to maintain adequate magnetic properties over a long period of time in a wide range of usage ... Ceramic magnets Er hat und behält ein gleichbleibendes Magnetfeld, ohne dass man wie bei Elektromagneten elektrische Leistung aufwenden muss. Because of these inherent material characteristics, it is not advisable to use any permanent magnet material as a structural component of an assembly. Permanent magnets are limited by the structure of the material. Due to weight considerations, permanent magnet s are usually . There are two main different types of magnet, permanent magnets and electromagnets. Many factors affect the choice of magnetic material, such as operating temperature, size, weight constraints, environmental concerns and required magnetic energy. Samarium : Cobalt (1:5) Sintered . The Permanent Magnet Material market report focuses on the CAGR status, competitors strategy, product analysis, sales, revenue, gross margin and top key players are Permanent Magnet Material. Im Buch gefunden – Seite 950a closed ring of magnetic material when the magnetizing force adequate to saturate the material is reduced to zero . ... Magnet , stock : A geometric shape of a given permanentmagnet material that is readily available from both basic ... The energy product range for the 1-5 series is 15 to 22 MGOe, with the 2-17 series falling between 22 and 32 MGOe. Introduced to the market in the 1970's, samarium cobalt magnets continue to be used today. Ceramic grades 5 and 8 are anisotropic grades. Units . Im Buch gefunden – Seite 9If a winding is placed around a permanent magnet and electrical current is applied , then the magnet becomes magnetized by virtue of J establishing H within the material . H in turn establishes M and hence B , which explains it being ... Alnico magnets have been replaced in many applications by ceramic and rare earth magnets. This category only includes cookies that ensures basic functionalities and security features of the website. According to the report, the Global Permanent Magnet Material Market is foreseen to observe huge development during the gauge time frame from 2020 to 2027. Permanent magnet motors utilize several types of permanent magnet materials, including hard ferrites, alnico, samarium cobalt and neodymium iron boron. © 2021 National Imports LLC, dba Magcraft. x 0.118'' Thk.¸ 7.2 lbs. In our last article, we've introduced the magnetic materials in permanent magnet motors.And in today's article, let's take a look at the relationship between motor performance and permanent magnet material function.In short, the performance of a motor is directly related to the performance parameters of . Im Buch gefunden – Seite 373A commonly used measure for the performance of a permanent magnet material is the maximum energy product, the largest value of this product along the demagnetization curve. 16.1.1 Permanent Magnets in Magnetic Circuits To start to ... Im Buch gefunden – Seite 984Figure 1 shows the demagnetization curves (both flux density and polarization are shown) of a modern high coercivity material from group iii or iv above. The most important parameters used for characterizing a permanent magnet material ... Im Buch gefundenIn Situ and Dynamic Observation and Its Application in Material Design Shuming Pan. Physica Sinica, 39 (4): 2, 39, 667-669 (in Chinese) Pan Shuming, Jin Hanmin, Tian Fengzuo (1983) Deposition, precipitation and coercivity of SmCo5 ... Rare Earth, Alnico, and Ceramic magnets are machined by grinding, which may considerably affect the magnet cost. for the forecast years. What are the maximum and minimum temperatures that the material will be exposed to? Raser Technologies said preliminary data reveals that the new motor, which utilizes "more affordable" copper instead of permanent magnet material found in traditional hub or pancake-style motors, has the potential to "deliver more horsepower per pound than current technology used in the most popular hybrid vehicles. Im Buch gefunden – Seite 35This intermediate alloy is useful as a master alloy for making a permanent magnet material. The source of the reactant element can comprise elemental silicon, germanium, tin, lead, arsenic, antimony, and/or bismuth, or the oxides ... Soft Magnetic Material: A material that in the presence of an externally applied magnetic field exhibits its own magnetism. The anisotropic method delivers the highest energy product among ceramic magnets at values up to 3.5 MGOe (Mega Gauss Oersted). Samples of Nd 2 (Fe 1-x Ni x ) 1 4 B, 0≤x≤0.20, with good phase homogeneity have been made by heating under vacuum for 300 h. 5 7 Fe Mössbauer parameters have been determined for all six different iron crystallographic sites at room temperature. Strontium Ferrite / Ferrite / Ceramic Ceramic, also known as Ferrite, magnets are made of a composite of iron oxide and barium/strontium carbonate. Iron, steel, nickel and cobalt are magnetic materials. Im Buch gefunden – Seite 213The NdFeB permanent magnet material has low cost and high strength and is able to operate up to 150°C (302°F), whereas the high-temperature SmCo permanent magnet material offers operation up to 290°C (554°F). These operating limits are ... Ceramic-1 is an isotropic grade with equal magnetic properties in all directions. Along with qualitative information, this report include the quantitative analysis of various segments in terms of market share, growth, opportunity analysis, market value, etc. and attracts or repels other magnets.. A permanent magnet is an object made from a material that is magnetized and creates its own persistent . Magnet: A material that produces a magnetic field. What are the magnetic requirements? They are normally saturated. All rights reserved. Several industrial magnet laboratories (including those of the Indiana General Corporation in the U. S.3 . At Dexter, our long history of magnetic expertise – including supporting all patent, trademark and license requirements of magnets – allows us to partner with you to deliver the permanent magnet product for your needs. This article discusses the chief magnetic characteristics of permanent magnet materials. Permanent magnets are made from special alloys (ferromagnetic materials) such as iron, nickel and cobalt, several alloys of rare-earth metals and minerals such as lodestone. Ceramic magnets are made using pressing and sintering. How are permanent magnets made? Im Buch gefunden – Seite 31Typical demagnetization and energy - product curves for permanentmagnet materials . ... Typical curves for the three classes of permanent - magnet material ar shown in figure 16 . The choice of material for a given application depends ... Im Buch gefunden – Seite 107and B He will not be much different from each other when the former value is smaller than the remanence of the permanent-magnet material, as for the material B in Fig. 12.1.1. In permanent-magnet materials based on rare-earth compounds, ... These magnets are brittle and require diamond wheels if grinding is necessary. The alloying process is casting or sintering. Permanent Magnet: A material that, once magnetized, continues to exhibit an external magnetic field in the absence of external stimulus. Electronic structure and properties of a permanent-magnet material: NdFe11TiNx Phys Rev B Condens Matter. Earth Permanent Magnet Material Magnetic Pump , Find Complete Details about Earth Permanent Magnet Material Magnetic Pump,Earth Permanent Magnet Material Magnetic Pump,Permanent Magnet Material Magnetic Pump,Magnetic Pump from Pumps Supplier or Manufacturer-Anhui Tenglong Pump And Valve Manufacturing Co., Ltd. This is due to their low cost. The nickel atoms preferentially substitute for iron atoms on the 16k<SUB>2</SUB> and 8j<SUB>2</SUB> sites. This material has similar properties as the Samarium Cobalt except that it is more easily oxidized and generally doesn't have the same temperature resistance. Sintering (Rare-earths, Ferrites and Alnicos) Rare-earth, ferrite and Alnico magnets can be manufactured with this method. As part of the rare earth family of permanent magnets, Neodymium (Nd)-Iron (Fe) Boron (B) material is often referred to as Nd and offers the most advanced permanent magnet material available today. The strongest magnets here at the Magnet Lab are 450,000 gauss, which would be almost 50 times stronger than that. If other factors are important (size, temperature . Im Buch gefunden – Seite 629The external magnetic field (also called the magnetizing force) should be strong enough to fully magnetize the material and saturate it so that the permanent magnet material attains its maximum possible magnetic capacity. Permanent magnets of different materials (Neodymium, SmCo, ferrite, alnico, flexible) have different manufacturing methods. What are the physical needs of the material? Samarium : Cobalt (2:17) Sintered . A magnet is a material or object that produces a magnetic field.This magnetic field is invisible but is responsible for the most notable property of a magnet: a force that pulls on other ferromagnetic materials, such as iron, steel, nickel, cobalt, etc. Ceramic magnets have a good balance of magnetic strength, resistance to demagnetizing and economy. Some grades also contain copper and/or titanium. Due to the high cost of the material samarium, samarium cobalt magnets are used for applications where high temperature and corrosion resistance is critical. These consist of a coil that has been made superconductive by helium liquid cooling, and immersed in liquid nitrogen. One particular mineral, called lodestone, or magnetite, is found mentioned in very old historical records (about 2500 years ago in Europe, and much earlier in the Far East) as a subject of curiosity.. Later, it was employed in the aid of navigation, as it was found . The record is an in-intensity evaluation of a wealthy supply of predominant factors which might be accountable for the development of the global Permanent Magnet Material market. Permanent Magnet. Units . These materials are costly and are generally used in very selective applications due to the cost. Characteristics: Not as brittle as SmCo, but should not be used at temperatures above 300°F, without special . The process and the heat treatment needed to optimize magnetic properties produces hard (Rc45) and brittle parts that are best shaped or finished by abrasive grinding. Im Buch gefunden – Seite 3555.2.5.1 Optimal Use of Permanent Magnet Material In Figure 5.13 it is shown that a permanent magnet with a straight demagnetisation graph is most efficiently used when the external field strength equals Hc/2 and the flux density equals ... Alnico magnet material is made by alloying aluminum, nickel and cobalt with iron. As an example of a magnetostatic problem, consider how to model a horseshoe-shaped permanent magnet. Im Buch gefunden – Seite 8-13High strength cobalt-iron alloys have therefore been developed to meet these and other applications, such as magnetic bearings. 8.7 Permanent magnet materials The properties of a permanent magnet material are given by the ... Im Buch gefunden – Seite 26The behavior of a permanent magnet material that is exposed to a varying magnetic field is shown in Figure 1. When an initially unmagnetized permanent magnet is exposed to a gradually increasing magnetic field H , its magnetization M ... Im Buch gefunden – Seite 242... materials in electromagnetic device topology and shape optimization. IEEE Trans. Magn. 45, 1154–1156 (2009) 4. Lim, S., Min, S., Hong, J.P.: Low torque ripple rotor design of the interior permanent magnet motor using the multi-phase ... Customer Service Available Monday- Friday 9am - 4pm ET. These materials are readily available and at a lower cost than other types of materials used in permanent magnets making it desirable due to the lower cost. The observation is primarily based on studies of different factors, including market dynamics, analysis, challenges, issues, market size, and companies involved. Dr. John Ormerod Senior Technology Advisor Magnet Applications, Inc. At room temperature NdFeB has the highest energy product of all . Ceramic Ferrite, Samarium Cobalt (SmCo) and Neodymium-iron-boron (Neo) magnets are all made through a process called Powder Metallurgy.. We melt raw materials in vacuum conditions, then pour it into a mould or allow it to cool on a cooling plate. Therefore, the sintered Nd-Fe-B is the highest production, the most widely used rare earth permanent magnet material. Im Buch gefunden – Seite 2147The study of cobalt - platinum alloys has been of interest since they represent a class of permanentmagnet material in which the disorder - to - order transformation plays a controlling role . The magnetic properties of alloys in the ... Im Buch gefunden – Seite 209The capability of tolerating negative field strength is a very important property of permanent magnet materials used in ... From the study above we may note that, in practice, a permanent magnet material normally operates at a flux ... With over 60 years . They all use a permanent magnet of some variety. Vinyl is often used in this type of magnet as the binder. pull07047All magnets are not created equal.These rare earth magnets are made from Neodymium, the strongest permanent magnet material on the market today. in particular those that ne:rd to be very close to the beam. Ceramic. But opting out of some of these cookies may affect your browsing experience. The report on Rare Earth Permanent Magnet Material Market offers in-depth analysis on market trends, drivers, restraints, opportunities etc. closed, tunnel-type MRI or open MRI. These materials are readily available and at a lower cost than other types of materials used in permanent magnets making it desirable due to the lower cost. Im Buch gefunden – Seite 108In two-dimensional geometries this yields ∫ μ0 J r B r ∗ (ˆz) = dxdy = − ) y z /∂x − ∂(B r − ) x /∂y ] dxdy (4.37) 2πi ˆz z [ ∂(B 1 ∫ Ω ˆz where the integration extends over a volume Ω containing the permanent magnet material ... Permanent Magnet Material Specs dgallup (Automotive) (OP) 19 Mar 07 17:54. I have recently inherited a number of sensor designs, mostly variable reluctance but some Hall effect. Flexible magnets are very similar to the injection molded magnets but are produced in flat strips and sheets. Sintered . Alnico . Sintering offers superior mechanical characteristics, whereas casting delivers higher energy products (up to 5.5 MGOe) and allows for the design of intricate shapes. Along with qualitative information, this report includes the quantitative analysis of various segments in terms of market share, growth, opportunity analysis, market value, etc. Out of these, the cookies that are categorized as necessary are stored on your browser as they are essential for the working of basic functionalities of the website. Im Buch gefunden – Seite 49Selectivity of the Data : The data were developed as typical design information using US Steel material rather than ... type of permanent magnet material followed by one section , Specifications and Data , which contains the magnetic ... Δdocument.getElementById( "ak_js" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); Monday-Friday 9am-5pm PST. 1. Permanent Magnets Materials. This book has been designed to be useful to two main categories of readers, namely, electrical and mechanical engineers in the user industries, and post-graduates and students embracing mechanical and electrical engineers. The sustained success of the permanent-magnet industry in developing improved magnet characteristics can be realised from the graph shown below; The latest addition being neodymium-iron-boron which has been pioneered by Sumitomo as 'Neomax', General Motors as 'Magnequench', Crucible ('Crumax'), and IG Technologies ('NelGT'). 2. The magnetic characterization of the yttrium-cobalt compound YCo5 was completed by a measurement of the crystal anisotropy constants. Alnico magnet material is made by alloying aluminum, nickel and cobalt with iron. These magnets are also made in different grades. I have always worked with soft magnetic materials before. The design of MRI is essentially determined by the type and format of the main magnet, i.e. Ceramic, also known as Ferrite, magnets are made of a composite of iron oxide and barium or strontium carbonate. Im Buch gefunden – Seite 19Jacek F. Gieras, Rong-Jie Wang, Maarten J. Kamper. configurations at five different power levels [214], which shows that the AFPM machine has a smaller volume and less active material mass for a given power rating than the RFPM machine. There are five main types of permanent magnet material; these are, in order of strength from strongest to weakest, neodymium, samarium cobalt, alnico, ferrite, and flexible rubber. 2.1.2 Individual Magnet:The term individual magnet denotes a magnet purchased in a size and shape to be ready for direct incorporation into a magnetic circuit. B 48, 6156 - Published 1 September 1993. Im Buch gefunden – Seite 833The present paper introduces a design methodology for permanent magnet generators optimizing the magnetic material. Both cases of ferrite and neodymium alloy magnets have been considered with respect to their suitability for a 20 kW ... Figure Permanent Magnet Material Demand in Consumer Electronics, 2016-2020, in USD Million Figure Permanent Magnet Material Demand in Consumer Electronics, 2016-2020, in Volume 6.1.4 Demand in Energy Figure Permanent Magnet Material Demand in Energy, 2016-2020, in USD Million Figure Permanent Magnet Material Demand in Energy, 2016-2020, in Volume [/caption] A permanent magnet is a magnet that does not lose its magnet field. We also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how you use this website. Im Buch gefunden – Seite 489For small machines, synchronous operation can (preferably) be achieved in other ways: • by permanent magnet excitation (in the rotor) • by reluctance variation in the rotor (i.e. saliency) • by using a ring of hysteretic material in the ... Bonded Nd magnets have an excellent dollar value in terms of price per unit of energy product allowing small shapes and sizes with high magnetic . Construction. Alnico magnets are made up of a composite of aluminum, nickel and cobalt with small amounts of other elements added to enhance the properties of the magnet. The rotor magnetization extends over 135 degrees electrical, i.e. Glue to back of pro Global "Alloy permanent magnet material Market" Research Report 2021 introduced by Industry Research biz features an elemental study of the present status of this market and detailed insights and . The properties of a new PM material are not known yet, but a span of likely parameters can be studied. Im Buch gefundenPermanentmagnet material is commercially availablein a great varietyofshapes. To summarize and evaluate the various means of producing magneticfields for biomagnetic experiments, one could saythat solenoids or aircoreelectromagnets ... and attracts or repels other magnets.. A permanent magnet is an object made from a material that is magnetized and creates its own persistent . 4. Settings for the typical magnetization patterns . Permanent Magnet Material Options: Why $/kg And (BH) max Are Misleading Metrics! The stator of the motor serves as a return path for the magnetic flux. By using this form you agree with this site's privacy policy and consent to you submitted data being collected and stored. ACGUH TLV (mg/m3) Notes Neodymium 33% 7440-00-8 Not established Iron 65% 7439-89-6 10 (oxide) Boron 1.3% 7440-42-8 10 Nickel 0.01-0.4% 7440-02- 1 (dust) / 0.1 (fume) Plating The hot-pressed Nd-Fe-B has the advantages of high density, good corrosion resistance and high coercivity. Question is ⇒ In order to reduce the hysteresis loss, Options are ⇒ (A) core may be laminated., (B) silicon steel may be used as the core material., (C) core may be constructed with any permanent magnet material such as Amico., (D) core may be impregnated with varnish., (E) , Leave your comments or Download question paper. Magnetism is an . MagnetIt is possible to define demagnetization properties with the material database or property parameters. Understanding permanent magnets / rare earth magnets and how their application can play into the innovative devices of today's markets is the foundation of our business. Hard ferrites are the permanent magnet material most commonly found (by weight) in permanent magnet motors. Alnico magnets have good temperature stability, good resistance to demagnetization due to shock but they are easily demagnetized. Samarium : Cobalt (2:17) Sintered . Sintered . Ceramic, also known as Ferrite, magnets are made of a composite of iron oxide and barium or strontium carbonate. At Dexter, our long history of magnetic expertise - including supporting all patent, trademark and license requirements of magnets - allows . Neodymium. Surface treatments have been developed that allow them to be used in most applications. The report on Alloy permanent magnet material Market offers in-depth analysis of market trends, drivers, restraints, opportunities etc. They have magnetic properties and are attracted to either pole of a magnet. Contents: Sputter deposition of rare-earth-cobalt alloys; Metallurgy of sputtered magnet material; Magnetic property studies - sputtered amorphous alloys, RCo5 alloys, R2(Co, Fe)17 alloys; Oxygen control studies; Preparation of EuCO5; ... Rev. N35¸ 0.709'' Dia. Im Buch gefunden – Seite 32We now show that operation of a given permanentmagnet material in a magnetic circuit at this point will result in the smallest volume of that material required to produce a given flux density in an air gap. In Example 1.9, we found an ... In this article we will focus on the various methods and their respective advantages and drawbacks. Injection moldable magnets are a composite of resin and magnetic powders of different materials allowing parts to be made in an injection molding process. These treatments include gold, nickel, zinc and tin plating and epoxy resin coating. Centuries ago, it was discovered that certain types of mineral rock possessed unusual properties of attraction to the metal iron.
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